The son of an uneducated peasant, became one of the most brilliant scientific minds of all time

Newton, by William Blake; here, Newton is depicted critically as a "divine geometer". This copy of the work is currently held by the Tate Collection photo: wikipedia

Updated today 16/05/2020

Sir Isaac Newton 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726 was an English mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (described in his own day as a "natural philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and a key figure in the scientific revolution. 

His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus.

Isaac Newton. The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy Heritage Auctions

Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition photo: wikipedia

Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. 

By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the Solar System and demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be accounted for by the same principles. 

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Newton's theoretical prediction that Earth is shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by the geodetic measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, thus convincing most Continental European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of Descartes.

Descartes_Systems_Group

Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the colours of the visible spectrum. 

Illustration of a dispersive prism decomposing white light into the colours of the spectrum, as discovered by Newton photo: wikipedia

Newton's work on light was collected in his highly influential book Opticks, first published in 1704. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. 

In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots of a function, and classified most of the cubic plane curves.

The first, 1704, edition of Opticks: or, a treatise of the reflexions, refractions, inflexions and colours of light. Author Isaac Newton image wikipedia

John's College, Cambridge Wikimedia Commons

Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. He was a devout but unorthodox Christian, who privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity and who, unusually for a member of the Cambridge faculty of the day, refused to take holy orders in the Church of England. 

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Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of alchemy and biblical chronology, but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death.  

You may also like: Top 8: Looking for the elixir of immortality.

Politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London, where he served as Warden (1696–1700) and Master (1700–1727) of the Royal Mint, as well as president of the Royal Society (1703–1727).

Queen Anne in 1705 image wikipedia

Black Death contributed to one of the most important theories in History

In 1665, following an outbreak of bubonic plague in England, Cambridge University was closed, forcing Newton to return home at Woolsthorpe Manor. While there was in is garden, he saw an apple fall from a tree, an event that inspired him to formulate the famous law of universal gravitation. Newton later told him William Stukeley's incident, the author of his memoirs.

Original tree that inspired Sir Isaac Newton to consider gravitation photo: UniverseToday.com

The tree exists today, and some apple that Newton saw him falling that day, in the garden Woolsthorpe Manor was taken into space in 2010 aboard the Atlantis space.


He was interested in alchemy


Isaac Newton was passionate about alchemy. He has devoted a great deal of time trying to create "Philosopher's Stone" which he believed he had the power to turn other metals into gold and to make people immortal.

photo: likesuccess.com

4. Newton was  a member of parliament

Between 1689 and 1690, Newton was a member of Parliament representing Cambridge University. His contribution was limited. He had spoken only once, when he asked a bailiff to close the window because it was cool. At that time he spent in London, Newton was met with several influential figures of the time, including King William III and philosopher John Locke.

William III of Orange, King of England & Scotland 1650 - 1702 Pinterest

5. He was knighted

In 1705 Newton was knighted by Queen Anne. At the time, he was a wealthy man after his mother inherited properties and published two papers bedside. Newton was buried in Westminster Abbey, the burial place of British monarchs, and other notable individuals who do not belong to the royal family (Charles Darwin, Charles Dickens or explorer David Livingstone).

Invenit Mundo presents the main historical significance of the day January 4:

1809 - He was born Louis Braille, inventor of the writing system for the blind (Braille, 1829) (d. January 6, 1852)

1841 - was born chemist Petru Poni, leading representative of the Romanian school of chemistry. (D. April 2, 1925)

1877 - was born in Brasov, Sextil Puşcariu writer, famous philologist and literary historian, member of the Romanian Academy (d. 1948).

1914 - In Romania formed a government headed by liberal I C I Brătianu, which lasted until January 29, 1918.

1926 - Romania's Parliament voted to accept giving up the throne Prince Charles ( "Act of January 4") and the recognition of his son, Prince Michael, as crown prince of Romania.

1954 - He died poet Elena Farago (Elena Paximade) ( "Puss punished", "Gândacelul" "lame puppy") (n. 29 martie1878)

1960 - A French writer Albert Camus died.

1970 - The actor died Mişu Fotino (father), founder of the State Theatre in Brasov. (N. 1886)

1990 - It was announced the abolition of the State Security Department.

1990 - Held the first press conference of the Group for Social Dialogue (GDS), consisting of personalities from the cultural, artistic and scientific.

1994 - At a meeting of Liberal leaders Horia Rusu and Dinu Patriciu, the PL-93 Steering Committee adopted an "open letter to all the liberal parties" document proposing a "unification through competition liberals".

1996 - Mircea Geoana received the approval of the US administration to take over the post of ambassador to Washington.

1998 - died composer Basil Veselovsky ( "Hope Street," "The sea would know it," "I deserve")

1999 - The miners in the Jiu Valley have joined the general strike, demanding urgent settlement of 30 claims regarding the state of the mining industry.

2004 - The Great Gathering traditional Afghan Loya Jirga adopted the new Constitution "Islamic Republic of Afghanistan".

2006 - He died in Montreal with Alzheimer's, Romanian-born Canadian poet Irving Layton Peter (Israel Pincu Lazarovitch). Since the 40s was recognized as one of the most prolific, versatile, revolutionary and controversial poets of school "modern" Canadian. S reputation was consolidated in the 50s and 60s, especially after the publication of "A Red Carpet for the Sun" in 1959. One of his students was famous Leonard Cohen, musician, writer, promoter of Canadian postmodernism. (B. March 12, 1912, Targu Neamt, Romania).

2008 - The biggest Roma camp in France, located on the outskirts of Paris (Saint-Ouen), was disbanded

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Top 8: Looking for the elixir of immortality.

For hundreds of years, scientists, scholars and philosophers have chased the secret of the elixir of immortality, the transmutation of metals, and the discovery of the alkahest, a universal solvent. Work – and advances – in alchemy were so sought after that those dabbling in it went to great lengths to protect their secrets. Inspired by works like The Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz, they often wrote in code, describing their experiments and ideas in secret languages that only they could read. The result is an esoteric practice, the history of which remains mysterious to this day. This article examines several aspects of alchemy and its history, and the works of men and women who chased the most fantastic scientific and mythological ideas of their day. We’ve also thrown in a selection of random tidbits for your alchemical pleasure.


The Real Nicolas Flamel

(Image: filip; Nicolas Flamel’s house in Paris)

When it comes to the world’s great alchemists, Nicolas Flamel is certainly one of the best-known names. All of which is ironic, really, as there is no historical evidence to suggest that he had anything at all to do with practicing alchemy.


The real Nicolas Flamel was born in 1330 and died in Paris in 1410. During his lifetime, he was well-known as a scribe and manuscript-seller, enjoying a comfortable life after marrying the wealthy widow Perenelle. Their fame came from their philanthropy, their dedication to the church and their commissioning of several sculptures. Their home still stands, one of the oldest stone buildings in Paris.

It wasn’t until the 17th century that Flamel’s name was linked to alchemy. During his days as a bookseller, Flamel supposedly published Livre des figures hieroglyphiques (which didn’t appear until 1612), and then spent the rest of his life chasing and – it’s said – eventually achieving immortality and the Philosopher’s Stone. Flamel’s reputation is one of the best examples of pseudepigraphy in history: the practice of publishing works falsely under the name of a historical personality.

Of the estimated 10 million words Newton left behind in papers and notebooks, around one million of them were written on alchemical research. This includes his code words for various substances: codes like “Green Dragon”, “the Net”, “Diana’s doves”, and, bizarrely, the “menstrual blood of the sordid whore”.


John Damian de Falcuis, Scotland’s Flying Alchemist

(Image: Otter; view toward Stirling Castle)

In 1500, the Scottish royal court noted a first of its kind: an alchemical laboratory set up with the blessing of King James IV. It was set behind a door in Stirling Castle that was off-limits to everyone but the alchemist – a shadowy figure named John Damian – and the king himself.

The Scotsman reports that Damian was less than admired at court, and that he earned the nickname of the “French leech” (despite being Italian) for the vast sums of money that the crown sank into his alchemical studies. He had wooed the king with talk of finding a way to create not just the Philosopher’s Stone, but the Elixir of Life. No one could say that he didn’t aim high, however. In 1507, he did – quite literally – just that.

During his studies, he became obsessed with the idea of finding a way to allow man to fly. By September 1507, his hard work and long hours had led to the completion of a pair of mechanical wings that he believed would let him take to the skies – and desperately maintain the patronage of the king.


The alchemist Damian hurled himself from the top of Stirling Castle, but didn’t so much fly as plummet. He broke his leg in the fall, but he retained the patronage of the king. James not only continued to fund his work, but financed a five-year tour of the continent.

Mary the Jewess

One of the earliest alchemical writers, Mary the Jewess lived some time between the first and third centuries. None of her actual writings survived, but her work was quoted and used extensively by her successors.

A remarkable number of practical inventions came from Mary’s work and research. She was the first to record the discovery of hydrochloric acid, and she developed ideas for some of the most important chemical apparatuses used today. As she was writing about her experiments with “divine water” (sulfuric acid) and “philosopher’s clay”, she also developed the mechanisms for distillation that we still use in chemistry today. The bain-marie, a double boiler still used in applications like the melting of chocolate and small-scale soap production, is little changed from Mary the Jewess’ invention some 2,000 years ago.

Legend says that Japan was discovered when Qin Shi Huang sent 500 men and 500 women to explore the eastern seas with the Taoist alchemist Xu Fu. They were looking for the elixir of immortality.

Cleopatra the Alchemist

Cleopatra wasn’t her real name, but she was a very real alchemist and philosopher writing in Egypt during the 3rd century. One of four female alchemists (along with Mary the Jewess) reported to have the knowledge needed to create the Philosopher’s Stone, she also created something that’s had a marked influence on our world today: the alembic still.


Cleopatra (not to be confused with the famous queen, Cleopatra VII) wrote extensively on the transformation of life and the quantification of alchemical experiments. She also coined the term “chrysopoeia”, referring to one of the most well-known alchemical concepts, the search for the method of turning base metals into gold.

Alchemy had its own set of symbols used to indicate some of the most common substances and processes. Some of those processes were linked to the signs of the zodiac; the sign for Separation and Scorpio are the same, for example, along with the sign for Digestion and Leo, and Fermentation and Capricorn.

The Alchemical Waters

(Image: Thejohnnler; aqua regia seen in a lab)

Alchemy had its own set of symbols used to indicate some of the most common substances and processes. Some of those processes were linked to the signs of the zodiac; the sign for Separation and Scorpio are the same, for example, along with the sign for Digestion and Leo, and Fermentation and Capricorn.

Alchemical experiments throughout history were incredibly varied, but one common theme that ran through the centuries was the idea of the alchemical waters. Aqua fortis (strong water) was a highly corrosive liquid that could dissolve anything except gold. It was made by combining various percentages of sand, vitriol, alum and saltpeter, then distilling the mixture.

Aqua vitae (the water of life), meanwhile, was originally made from distilling wine, and referred to water with a high concentration of ethanol. Eventually, it became forever linked with the idea of distilling liquors. The king’s water, or aqua regia, was given its name due to its ability to dissolve gold and platinum. A mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, it has also been called “royal water”.

Perhaps the strangest is aqua omnium florum, or all-flower water. The name is rather deceiving, as this alchemical ingredient was made by distilling the water removed from cow dung – specifically, dung that was gathered from the fields in May and produced by cows that ate meadow grass and wildflowers. It was mixed with white wine and snails.


The 17th century alchemist Hennig Brand took a bizarre approach to creating the Philosopher’s Stone. Believing that the key to alchemy could be found in water and in the human body, he collected huge amounts of urine and subjected the samples to various experiments. He didn’t find the mythical stone, but he did discover phosphorus.


Alchemy and Laudanum

(Image: Cydone)

Laudanum is well known as the bane of Victorian England, but its discovery dates back to the 16th century and Paracelsus. According to the story, Paracelsus was seeking to unlock the potential healing powers of opium, and discovered that opium was most soluble in alcohol. He would go on to claim that his concoction (which he called his “arcanum”), could cure all illnesses apart from leprosy. He even claimed that it could bring someone back from the dead.

The ingredients of Paracelsus’s laudanum are something of a mystery, as he only gave the recipe to those he initiated into his studies. According to some records, the recipe included opium, henbane, the bezoar stone from a cow’s intestines, musk oil, amber, crushed pearls, coral, mummy, and parts of the heart of a stag and a unicorn.


Later, Thomas Sydenham would claim to have created his own version of the medicine from Paracelsus’s original recipe, and would later be credited with its widespread use across Europe.


Belgian alchemist Jean Baptista van Helmont claimed to have seen the Philosopher’s Stone in action. He said that it was the colour of saffron and had the texture of glass, and that he had seen it turn quicksilver into gold.

Creating the Homunculus

(Images: (left, right) via Wikipedia)

The term “homunculus” was coined by the legendary alchemist and occultist Paracelsus, and the creation of the creature was the subject of numerous 16th century experiments. The basis of the experiment was similar to the creation of the folkloric golem. Numerous alchemists tried it, but we know Paracelsus’s methods.

According to De natura rerum, the process for creating a tiny person was pretty straightforward, if not a bit labour-intensive. Seal some sperm in a horse’s womb until it starts to move on its own, then remove the tiny little man. Feed it human blood for the next 40 weeks, and Paracelsus says that it’ll mature into a little human-like child.

Like-minded individuals loved the idea. It was rumoured that Count Johann von Kefstein had created 10 such beings that could predict the future, and others claimed to have created homunculus that could commune with the spirit world.

Since the writings of Galen, it was believed that the four humors were responsible for creating balance – or imbalance – in the human body. Paracelsus thought differently, writing about three humors: salt (stability), sulphur (combustibility), and mercury (liquidity).

Sir Isaac Newton & the Philosopher’s Stone

At the same time Newton was discovering the secrets of optics and astronomy, he was also searching for the Philosopher’s Stone. In his work “Humores mineralis”, he describes what he sees as mystical properties found in saltpeter, and suggests that this substance is as close to the stone as anyone has come.

The problem Newton faced, however, was over how there could be so many minerals on the surface of the earth, when the water cycle should have been draining them all away into the underground. Minerals never rose to the surface, after all, and that was a problem.

He speculated that there was some sort of reaction going on near the surface of the earth that was replenishing all of these minerals, and that saltpeter was the active ingredient. Along with mercury and sulphur, saltpeter was thought to be one of the crucial elements in the transmutation of minerals and ore – a reaction he studied in the laboratory.

Countless alchemical works were lost in 292 AD, when the Roman Emperor Diocletian ordered all magical and alchemical books to be burned. Only a relative handful of original documents survived.

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