A New Signal for a Neutron Star Collision Discovered NASA
Scientists have established that the origin of this signal is the binary system 3A 0726-260.
Using data provided by the AstroSat satellite, a team of Indian researchers was able to identify strong X-ray emissions from the 3A 0726-260 binary system, which consists of a magnetized neutron star and a regular star. Scientists explain that in the case of these systems, X-ray emissions are based on the material that the neutron star attracts from the atmosphere of the neighboring star, notes Phys.
First astronomy satellite ASTROSAT
The 3A 0726-260 system is about 20,000 light-years away, and as Indian scientists explain, it is one of the least studied pulsars in binary systems, although, according to their data. , it tends to be a fairly "bright" source, if we look at X-ray emissions. Astronomers have established that this system has an orbital period of 34.55 days, and the rotation period of the pulsar is 103 seconds. Also, this 103-second pulse appears to be followed by a secondary, but weaker, pulse detected in another observer's data.
3A_0726-260 INTEGRAL Galactic Plane Scanning
"Changing the pulse profile from a single peak to a double-peaked structure can be explained by the intrinsic change that occurs in the beam pattern from a pencil beam to a hay beam, leading to the beam coming out of our line. visual. The change in the impulse process can also be attributed to a transition of the accretion model from a smooth, low-energy accretion stream to several narrow, high-energy accretion streams that are blocked in phase with the neutron star.
The antibodies produced by the Llama could be used against COVID-19. You can also watch here number of infection with Coronavirus Updated (Live) on worldometers
A study by the University of Texas, USA, led to the discovery of antibodies that can "bind" to one of the key proteins on the surface of the coronavirus. The researchers explain that these antibodies attach to those proteins that allowSARS-CoV-2 to infect cells in the host organism. In addition to this discovery with significant potential against the pandemic we are going through, scientists also point to the unusual source from which they obtained these antibodies: a blade called Winter, notes Neuroscience News.
This is one of the first known antibodies that can neutralize SARS-CoV-2, said Jason McLellan, a member of the University of Texas Department of Molecular Bioscience and co-author of the study.
The effectiveness of these antibodies, called VHH-72, has been proven in laboratory cultures, and researchers are now focusing on studying their effects in laboratory animals. If these tests prove conclusive then scientists could receive the necessary approvals to start human testing.
"Vaccines should be given a month or two before infection to provide protection," said Dr. McLellan. "In the case of antibody therapies, we administer protective antibodies directly to a patient and thus, immediately after treatment, they should be protected. Antibodies could also be used to treat someone who is already ill to reduce the severity of the disease, ” he added.
Structural Basis for Potent Neutralization of Betacoronaviruses ScienceDirect.com
Scientists explain that when faced with an infection, the immune system of the lamellae produces two types of antibodies: one of them is similar to those produced by the human immune system and a type of small antibody, VHH- 72. The latter have only a quarter of the former and, in theory, could be administered with an inhaler. Scientists believe that such a method of administration could be extremely effective because it "directly" attacks the site of infection.
I was very happy to read about the continuity of missions Jupiter’s moon Europa " Europa Clipper mission " We can only be very excited and curious to learn more about the depths of the oceans of Jupiter's moon Europe. The eventual life forms can be infinitely varied, the variety of life oceans of moon Europa is still a mystery at the moment. Thanks to NASA and I want to thank them for their efforts in all areas, we will unravel the mystery of this possible extraterrestrial life ocean soon.
Below is a list of 15 strange species from the depths of the planet Earth's oceans, about which we do not have much scientific information and creatures that still continue to amaze us and surrounded in mystery. Think of the endless evolutionary possibilities of Jupiter’s moon Europa my friends !
The pelican eel (Eurypharynx pelecanoides) is a deep-sea eel rarely seen by humans, though it is occasionally caught in fishing nets. It is the only known member of the genus Eurypharynx and the family Eurypharyngidae. It belongs to the "saccopharyngiforms", members of which were historically placed in their own order, but are now considered true eels in the order Anguilliformes.
The Gulper Eel - Science-rumors
The pelican eel has been described by many synonyms, yet nobody has been able to demonstrate that more than one species of pelican eel exists. It is also referred to as the gulper eel (which can also refer to members of the related genus Saccopharynx), pelican gulper, and umbrella-mouth gulper. The specific epithet pelecanoides refers to the pelican, as the fish's large mouth is reminiscent of that of the pelican.
Sandra Raredon/Smithsonian Institution - cropped version of File:Eurypharynx pelecanoides X-ray.jpg
Description
Pelican eel specimens can be hard to describe, as they are so fragile that they become damaged when recovered from the immense pressure of the deep sea. The pelican eel's most notable feature is its large mouth, which is much larger than its body.
Gulper Eel Remarkable Large Mouth - Our Breathing Planet
The mouth is loosely hinged, and can be opened wide enough to swallow a fish much larger than the eel itself. The pouch-like lower jaw resembles that of a pelican, hence its name. The lower jaw is hinged at the base of the head, with no body mass behind it, making the head look disproportionately large. Its jaw is so large that it is estimated to be about a quarter of the total length of the eel itself. When it feeds on prey, water that is ingested is expelled via the gills.
Scripps Institution - UC San Diego Photo of the Week
Pelican eels are black or olive and some subspecies may have a thin lateral white stripe. They are ray-finned fish, and only resemble eels in appearance. source of text wikipedia
Hatchetfish ( Marine hatchetfishes or deep-sea hatchetfishes )
Marine hatchetfishes or deep-sea hatchetfishes are small deep-sea mesopelagic ray-finned fish of the stomiiform subfamily Sternoptychinae. They should not be confused with the freshwater hatchetfishes, which are not particularly closely related Teleostei in the characiform family Gasteropelecidae.
MLTSHP Deep Sea Hatchetfish
Found in tropical, subtropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, marine hatchetfishes range in size from Polyipnus danae at 2.8 cm (1.1 in) to the c.12 cm (4.7 in)-long giant hatchetfish (Argyropelecus gigas).
Wild Facts Creepy alien fish
They are small deep-sea fishes which have evolved a peculiar body shape and like their relatives have bioluminescent photophores. The latter allow them to use counter-illumination to escape predators that lurk in the depths: by matching the light intensity with the light penetrating the water from above, the fish does not appear darker if seen from below. They typically occur at a few hundred meters below the surface, but their entire depth range spans from 50 to 1,500 meters deep. source of text wikipedia
Hagfish, of the class Myxini (also known as Hyperotreti), are eel-shaped, slime-producing marine fish (occasionally called slime eels). They are the only known living animals that have a skull but no vertebral column, although hagfish do have rudimentary vertebrae. Along with lampreys, hagfish are jawless; they are the sister group to jawed vertebrates, and living hagfish remain similar to hagfish from around 300 million years ago.
Hagfish Bizarre prehistoric alien Pinterest
The classification of hagfish had been controversial. The issue was whether the hagfish was a degenerate type of vertebrate-fish that through evolution had lost its vertebrae (the original scheme) and was most closely related to lampreys, or whether hagfish represent a stage that precedes the evolution of the vertebral column (the alternative scheme) as is the case with lancelets. Recent DNA evidence has supported the original scheme.
Hagfish OCEAN TREASURES
The original scheme groups hagfish and lampreys together as cyclostomes (or historically, Agnatha), as the oldest surviving class of vertebrates alongside gnathostomes (the now-ubiquitous jawed vertebrates). The alternative scheme proposed that jawed vertebrates are more closely related to lampreys than to hagfish (i.e., that vertebrates include lampreys but exclude hagfish), and introduces the category craniata to group vertebrates near hagfish.
Snipe eels are a family, Nemichthyidae, of eels that consists of nine species in three genera. They are pelagic fishes, found in every ocean, mostly at depths of 300–600 m but sometimes as deep as 4000 m. Depending on the species, adults may reach 1–2 m (39–79 in) in length, yet they weigh only 80-400 g (a few ounces to a pound).
They are distinguished by their very slender jaws that separate toward the tips as the upper jaw curves upward. The jaws appear similar to the beak of the bird called the snipe. Snipe eels are oviparous, and the juveniles, called Leptocephali (meaning small head), do not resemble the adults but have oval, leaf-shaped and transparent bodies.
A scale diagram of the layers of the pelagic zone. Mature snipe eels generally occupy the Bathypelagic Zone
Spectacular Snipe Eel Sighting Nautilus Live
Different species of snipe eel have different shapes, sizes and colors. The similarly named bobtail snipe eel is actually in a different family and represented by two species, the black Cyema atrum and the bright red Neocyema erythrosoma.
A giant isopod is any of the almost 20 species of large isopods (crustaceans distantly related to shrimp and crabs, which are decapods) in the genus Bathynomus. They are abundant in the cold, deep waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.[1][2] Bathynomus giganteus, the species upon which the generitype is based, is often considered the largest isopod in the world, though other comparably poorly known species of Bathynomus may reach a similar size (e.g., B. kensleyi). The giant isopods are noted for their resemblance to the much smaller common woodlouse (pill bug), to which they are related.
A frontal view of Bathynomus giganteus, showing its large, highly reflective compound eyes wikipedia
French zoologist Alphonse Milne-Edwards was the first to describe the genus in 1879 after his colleague Alexander Agassiz collected a juvenile male B. giganteus from the Gulf of Mexico; this was an exciting discovery for both scientists and the public, as at the time the idea of a lifeless or "azoic" deep ocean had only recently been refuted by the work of Sir Charles Wyville Thomson and others. No females were recovered until 1891.
The underside of Bathynomus giganteus wikipedia
Giant isopods are of little interest to most commercial fisheries, but are infamous for attacking and destroying fish caught in trawls. Specimens caught in the Americas and Japan are sometimes seen in public aquariums.
The sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) or cachalot is the largest of the toothed whales and the largest toothed predator. It is the only living member of the genus Physeter and one of three extant species in the sperm whale family, along with the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale of the genus Kogia.
Sperm Whales Clicking You Inside Out — James Nestor at The Interval youtube
The sperm whale is a pelagic mammal with a worldwide range, and will migrate seasonally for feeding and breeding. Females and young males live together in groups, while mature males (bulls) live solitary lives outside of the mating season. The females cooperate to protect and nurse their young. Females give birth every four to 20 years, and care for the calves for more than a decade. A mature sperm whale has few natural predators, although calves and weakened adults are sometimes killed by pods of killer whales (orcas).
The sperm whale's brain is the largest in the world, five times heavier than a human's. wikipedia
Mature males average 16 metres (52 ft) in length but some may reach 20.7 metres (68 ft), with the head representing up to one-third of the animal's length. Plunging to 2,250 metres (7,382 ft), it is the third deepest diving mammal, exceeded only by the Southern elephant seal and Cuvier's beaked whale. The sperm whale uses echolocation and vocalization as loud as 230 decibels (re 1 µPa m) underwater. It has the largest brain on Earth, more than five times heavier than a human's. Sperm whales can live 70 years or more.
Anatomy of the sperm whale's head. The organs above the jaw are devoted to sound generation. wikipedia
Spermaceti (sperm oil), from which the whale derives its name, was a prime target of the whaling industry, and was sought after for use in oil lamps, lubricants, and candles. Ambergris, a solid waxy waste product sometimes present in its digestive system, is still highly valued as a fixative in perfumes, among other uses. Beachcombers look out for ambergris as flotsam. Sperm whaling was a major industry in the 19th century, depicted in the novel Moby-Dick. The species is protected by the International Whaling Commission moratorium, and is listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Riftia pachyptila, commonly known as giant tube worms, are marine invertebrates in the phylum Annelida[1] (formerly grouped in phylum Pogonophora and Vestimentifera) related to tube worms commonly found in the intertidal and pelagic zones. Riftia pachyptila live on the floor of the Pacific Ocean near black smokers, and can tolerate extremely high hydrogen sulfide levels. These worms can reach a length of 3 m (9 ft 10 in) and their tubular bodies have a diameter of 4 cm (1.6 in). Ambient temperature in their natural environment ranges from 2 to 30 degrees Celsius.
Photo of one of the largest concentrations of Riftia pachyptila observed, with anemones and mussels colonizing in close proximity. From the 2011 NOAA Galapagos Rift Expedition. The original NOAA image has been modified by increasing brightness. wikipedia
The common name "giant tube worm" is however also applied to the largest living species of shipworm, Kuphus polythalamia, which despite the name "worm" is a bivalve mollusc, rather than an annelid.
Dragon fish known as Stomiidae other article about Deep-sea dragonfish, one of the most bizarre creatures of the Sea - VIDEO Stomiidae is a family of deep-sea ray-finned fish, including the barbeled dragonfishes. They are quite small, usually around 15 cm, up to 26 cm. These fish are apex predators and have enormous jaws filled with fang-like teeth.
Scientists crack secret of dragonfish's deadly 'invisible' teeth New York Post
They are also able to hinge the neurocranium and upper-jaw system, which leads to the opening of the jaw to more than 100 degrees.[1] This ability allows them to consume extremely large prey, often 50% greater than their standard length
The anglerfish is a fish of the teleost order Lophiiformes It is a bony fish named for its characteristic mode of predation, in which a fleshy growth from the fish's head (the esca or illicium) acts as a lure for other fish.
Representatives of ceratioid families as recognized in this study-1. (A) Centrophrynidae: Centrophryne spinulosa Regan and Trewavas, 136 mm SL, LACM 30379-1; (B) Ceratiidae: Cryptopsaras couesii Gill, 34.5 mm SL, BMNH 2006.10.19.1 (photo by E. A. Widder); (C) Himantolophidae: Himantolophus appelii (Clarke), 124 mm SL, CSIRO H.5652-01; (D) Diceratiidae: Diceratias trilobus Balushkin and Fedorov, 86 mm SL, AMS I.31144-004; (E) Diceratiidae: Bufoceratias wedli (Pietschmann), 96 mm SL, CSIRO H.2285-02; (F) Diceratiidae: Bufoceratias shaoi Pietsch, Ho, and Chen, 101 mm SL, ASIZP 61796 (photo by H.-C. Ho); (G) Melanocetidae: Melanocetus eustales Pietsch and Van Duzer, 93 mm SL, SIO 55-229; (H) Thaumatichthyidae: Lasiognathus amphirhamphus Pietsch, 157 mm SL, BMNH 2003.11.16.12; (I) Thaumatichthyidae: Thaumatichthys binghami Parr, 83 mm SL, UW 47537 (photo by C. Kenaley); (J) Oneirodidae: Chaenophryne quasiramifera Pietsch, 157 mm SL, SIO 72-180. Courtesy of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists.
Some anglerfish are notable for extreme sexual dimorphism and sexual symbiosis of the small male with the much larger female, seen in the suborder Ceratioidei. In these species, males may be several orders of magnitude smaller than females.
The Creepy Anglerfish Comes to Light. (Just Don't Get Too Close ... NYT
Anglerfish occur worldwide. Some are pelagic (dwelling away from the sea floor), while others are benthic (dwelling close to the sea floor). Some live in the deep sea (e.g., Ceratiidae), while others on the continental shelf (e.g., the frogfishes Antennariidae and the monkfish/goosefish Lophiidae). Pelagic forms are most laterally compressed, whereas the benthic forms are often extremely dorsoventrally compressed (depressed), often with large upward-pointing mouths.
A viperfish is any species of marine fish in the genus Chauliodus. Viperfish are characterized by long, needle-like teeth and hinged lower jaws. A typical viperfish grows to lengths of 30 to 60 cm (12 to 23.5 in). Viperfish stay near lower depths in the daytime and shallower depths at night, primarily in tropical and temperate waters. Viperfish are believed to attack prey after luring them within range with light-producing organs called photophores, which are located along the ventral sides of its body, and with a prominent photophore at the end of a long spine in the dorsal fin reminiscent of the illicium of the unrelated deepsea anglerfishes. The viperfish flashes this natural light on and off, at the same time moving its dorsal spine around like a fishing rod and hanging completely still in the water. It also uses the light producing organ to communicate to potential mates and rivals.
Animal Diversity Web Chauliodus sloan
Viperfish vary in color from green, silver, to black. A viperfish uses its fang-like teeth to immobilize prey and would not be able to close its mouth because of their length, if it were not able to fold and curve them behind its head. The first vertebra behind the head of the viperfish absorbs the shock of biting prey. As with other deepsea fish, they are able to endure long periods with minimal food.
Viperfish are believed to live from 30 to 40 years in the wild, but in captivity they rarely live more than a few hours. Some species of dolphins and sharks are known to prey upon viperfish. Scientists believe they can swim at a speed of two body lengths per second, but this is not yet an official speed.
Viper fish zoom photo pinterest
Although it may appear to be covered in scales, it is covered by a thick, transparent coating of unknown substance. Extremely large, fang-like teeth give the fish a slightly protruded lower jaw which makes catching prey easy. The viperfish is lined with three different types of photophores, which some speculate are used to lure prey. They have microscopic spheres without a pigment layer that are scattered over the dorsal side, large spheres with a pigment coat, reflectors, and lens and large, bell-shaped organs with a pigment coat, reflectors, and lens that are grouped together in rows along the dorsal surface. Photophores can also be seen along the ventral and lateral surface of the fish. source wikipedia
Fangtooths are beryciform fish of the family Anoplogastridae (sometimes spelled "Anoplogasteridae") that live in the deep sea. The name is from Greek anoplo meaning "unarmed" and gaster meaning "stomach". With a circumglobal distribution in tropical and cold-temperate waters, the family contains only two very similar species in one genus, with no known close relatives.
Anoplogaster cornuta - Wikipedia
Description
While understandably named for their disproportionately large, fang-like teeth and unapproachable visage, fangtooths are actually quite small and harmless to humans: the larger of the two species, the common fangtooth, reaches a maximum length of just 16 cm (6.3 in) the shorthorn fangtooth is less than half this size though currently known only from juvenile specimens.
New Scientist Up close with the giant teeth of the deep-sea fangtooth
The head is small with a large jaw and appears haggard, riddled with mucous cavities delineated by serrated edges and covered by a thin skin. The eyes are relatively small, set high on the head; the entire head is a dark brown to black and is strongly compressed laterally, deep anteriorly and progressively more slender towards the tail.
Laboratory News Common Fangtooth alien face
The fins are small, simple, and spineless; the scales are embedded in the skin and take the form of thin plates. As compensation for reduced eyes, the lateral line is well-developed and appears as an open groove along the flanks.
The vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis, lit. "vampire squid from Hell") is a small cephalopod found throughout temperate and tropical oceans in extreme deep sea conditions. Unique retractile sensory filaments justify the vampire squid's placement in its own order, Vampyromorphida, as it shares similarities with both octopuses and squid. As a phylogenetic relict, it is the only known surviving member of its order. The first specimens were collected on the Valdivia Expedition and they were originally described as an octopus in 1903 by German teuthologist Carl Chun, but later assigned to a new order together with several extinct taxa.
Vampire Squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis) – Our Wild World
Description
The vampire squid can reach a maximum total length around 30 cm (1 ft). Its 15-centimetre (5.9 in) gelatinous body varies in colour from velvety jet-black to pale reddish, depending on location and lighting conditions. A webbing of skin connects its eight arms, each lined with rows of fleshy spines or cirri; the inner side of this "cloak" is black.
Only the distal halves (farthest from the body) of the arms have suckers. Its limpid, globular eyes, which appear red or blue, depending on lighting, are proportionately the largest in the animal kingdom at 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. The name of the animal was inspired by its dark colour, cloaklike webbing, and red eyes, rather than habit—it feeds on detritus, not blood.
Oarfish are large, greatly elongated, pelagic lampriform fish belonging to the small family Regalecidae. Found in all temperate to tropical oceans yet rarely seen, the oarfish family contains three species in two genera. One of these, the giant oarfish (Regalecus glesne), is the longest bony fish alive, growing up to 8 m (26 ft) in length.
Sea Serpent - Can the Giant Oarfish Predict Earthquakes? The Vintage News
The common name oarfish is thought to be in reference either to their highly compressed and elongated bodies, or to the now discredited belief that the fish "row" themselves through the water with their pelvic fins. The family name Regalecidae is derived from the Latin regalis, meaning "royal". The occasional beachings of oarfish after storms, and their habit of lingering at the surface when sick or dying, make oarfish a probable source of many sea serpent tales.
Although the larger species are considered game fish and are fished commercially to a minor extent, oarfish are rarely caught alive; their flesh is not well regarded for eating due to its gelatinous consistency
United States Navy SEALS holding a 23-foot (7.0 m) giant oarfish, found washed up on the shore near San Diego, California, in September 1996 wikipedia
Anatomy and morphology
The dorsal fin originates from above the (relatively large) eyes and runs the entire length of the fish. Of the approximately 400 dorsal fin rays, the first 10 to 13 are elongated to varying degrees, forming a trailing crest embellished with reddish spots and flaps of skin at the ray tips. The pelvic fins are similarly elongated and adorned, reduced to one to five rays each. The pectoral fins are greatly reduced and situated low on the body.
The anal fin is completely absent and the caudal fin may be reduced or absent, as well, with the body tapering to a fine point. All fins lack true spines. At least one account, from researchers in New Zealand, described the oarfish as giving off "electric shocks" when touched.
The nautilus (from the Latin form of the original Ancient Greek: ναυτίλος, 'sailor') is a pelagic marine mollusc of the cephalopod family Nautilidae, the sole extant family of the superfamily Nautilaceae and of its smaller but near equal suborder, Nautilina.
It comprises six living species in two genera, the type of which is the genus Nautilus. Though it more specifically refers to species Nautilus pompilius, the name chambered nautilus is also used for any of the Nautilidae. All are protected under CITES Appendix II.
Nautilus, Palau wikipedia
Nautilidae, both extant and extinct, are characterized by involute or more or less convolute shells that are generally smooth, with compressed or depressed whorl sections, straight to sinuous sutures, and a tubular, generally central siphuncle. Having survived relatively unchanged for hundreds of millions of years, nautiluses represent the only living members of the subclass nautiloidea, and are often considered "living fossils".
Diagram of the anatomical structure of a female N. pompilius including most of its internal organs. wikipedia
The first and oldest fossil of Chambered Nautilus displayed at Philippine National Museum.
The word nautilus is derived from the Greek ναυτίλος nautílos and originally referred to the paper nautiluses of the genus Argonauta, which are actually octopuses. The word nautílos literally means "sailor", as paper nautiluses were thought to use two of their arms as sails
The coelacanths (/ˈsiːləkænθ/ (About this soundlisten) SEE-lə-kanth) constitute a now-rare order of fish that includes two extant species in the genus Latimeria: the West Indian Ocean coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae) primarily found near the Comoro Islands off the east coast of Africa and the Indonesian coelacanth (Latimeria menadoensis). They follow the oldest-known living lineage of Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish and tetrapods), which means they are more closely related to lungfish and tetrapods than to ray-finned fish. They are found along the coastlines of the Indian Ocean and Indonesia. The West Indian Ocean coelacanth is a critically endangered species.
Preserved Latimeria menadoensis, Tokyo Sea Life Park, Japan wikipedia
Coelacanths belong to the subclass Actinistia, a group of lobed-finned fish related to lungfish and certain extinct Devonian fish such as osteolepiforms, porolepiforms, rhizodonts, and Panderichthys. Coelacanths were thought to have become extinct in the Late Cretaceous, around 66 million years ago, but were rediscovered in 1938 off the coast of South Africa.
Pectoral fin of a West Indian Ocean coelacanth wikipedia
The coelacanth was long considered a "living fossil" because scientists thought it was the sole remaining member of a taxon otherwise known only from fossils, with no close relations alive,[5] and that it evolved into roughly its current form approximately 400 million years ago. However, several recent studies have shown that coelacanth body shapes are much more diverse than previously thought.
A study led by Matt Nicholl, a lecturer at the Faculty of Physics and Astronomy and the Institute of Astronomy of Gravitational Waves at Birmingham University, UK, has uncovered the brightest supernova discovered so far. This supernova, SN2016aps, is 3.6 billion light-years away, notes Space
"We can measure supernovae using two scales: the total energy of the explosion and the amount of energy that is emitted as observable light or radiation," explains the researcher. "In a typical supernova, radiation is less than 1% of total energy. But in SN2016aps, I discovered that the radiation was five times higher than the blast energy of a normal-sized supernova. This is the most light I've seen from a supernova, "he adds.
The researchers explain that SN2016aps is a "strange" object, theorizing that it could be a particular type of supernova: unstable pulsation pair; in which two big stars collide before they explode. The existence of such supernovae has been theorized, but they have not yet been identified in the data provided by astronomical observers.
"If the supernova is synchronized, it may end up releasing a huge amount of energy during the collision. We believe that this is one of the most convincing candidates for this process that has not yet been observed, ”explains the researcher.
"The gas we detected was mostly hydrogen, but such a massive star would usually have lost all its hydrogen through stellar winds long before it started pulsing. One explanation is that two slightly less massive stars around, say 60 solar masses, merged before the explosion. The lower-mass stars keep their hydrogen longer, while their combined mass is large enough to trigger pair instability, ”said Dr. Nicholl.
Montreal institute going ‘open’ to accelerate science
Guy Rouleau, the director of McGill University’s Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) and Hospital in Canada, is frustrated with how slowly neuroscience research translates into treatments. “We’re doing a really shitty job,” he says. “It’s not because we’re not trying; it has to do with the complexity of the problem.”
Montreal institute going 'open' to accelerate science | Science
So he and his colleagues at the renowned institute decided to try a radical solution. Starting this year, any work done there will conform to the principles of the “open- science” movement—all results and data will be made freely available at the time of publication, for example, and the institute will not pursue patents on any of its discoveries. Although some large-scale initiatives like the government-funded Human Genome Project have made all data completely open, MNI will be the first scientific institute to follow that path, Rouleau says. notes sciencemag
“It’s an experiment; no one has ever done this before,” he says. The intent is that neuroscience research will become more efficient if duplication is reduced and data are shared more widely and earlier. Opening access to the tissue samples in MNI’s biobank and to its extensive databank of brain scans and other data will have a major impact, Rouleau hopes. “We think that it is a way to accelerate discovery and the application of neuroscience.”
Neuroscientists have used a classic branch of maths in a totally new way to peer into the structure of our brains. What they've discovered is that the brain is full of multi-dimensional geometrical structures operating in as many as 11 dimensions.
Human head and brain, 3D MRI scan - Stock Image
We're used to thinking of the world from a 3-D perspective, so this may sound a bit tricky, but the results of this new study could be the next major step in understanding the fabric of the human brain - the most complex structure we know of.
This latest brain model was produced by a team of researchers from the Blue Brain Project, a Swiss research initiative devoted to building a supercomputer-powered reconstruction of the human brain.
Diffusion Tensor Imaging Art Prints Fine Art America
The team used algebraic topology, a branch of mathematics used to describe the properties of objects and spaces regardless of how they change shape. They found that groups of neurons connect into 'cliques', and that the number of neurons in a clique would lead to its size as a high-dimensional geometric object.
"We found a world that we had never imagined," says lead researcher, neuroscientist Henry Markram from the EPFL institute in Switzerland.
"There are tens of millions of these objects even in a small speck of the brain, up through seven dimensions. In some networks, we even found structures with up to 11 dimensions."
Just to be clear - this isn't how you'd think of spatial dimensions (our Universe has three spatial dimensions plus one time dimension), instead it refers to how the researchers have looked at the neuron cliques to determine how connected they are.
"Networks are often analysed in terms of groups of nodes that are all-to-all connected, known as cliques. The number of neurons in a clique determines its size, or more formally, its dimension," the researchers explain in the paper.
Human brains are estimated to have a staggering 86 billion neurons, with multiple connections from each cell webbing in every possible direction, forming the vast cellular network that somehow makes us capable of thought and consciousness.
With such a huge number of connections to work with, it's no wonder we still don't have a thorough understanding of how the brain's neural network operates. But the new mathematical framework built by the team takes us one step closer to one day having a digital brain model.
To perform the mathematical tests, the team used a detailed model of the neocortex the Blue Brain Project team published back in 2015. The neocortex is thought to be the most recently evolved part of our brains, and the one involved in some of our higher-order functions like cognition and sensory perception.
After developing their mathematical framework and testing, the team also confirmed their results on real brain tissue in rats.
According to the researchers, algebraic topology provides mathematical tools for discerning details of the neural network both in a close-up view at the level of individual neurons, and a grander scale of the brain structure as a whole.
By connecting these two levels, the researchers could discern high-dimensional geometric structures in the brain, formed by collections of tightly connected neurons (cliques) and the empty spaces (cavities) between them.
"We found a remarkably high number and variety of high-dimensional directed cliques and cavities, which had not been seen before in neural networks, either biological or artificial," the team writes in the study.
"Algebraic topology is like a telescope and microscope at the same time," says one of the team, mathematician Kathryn Hess from EPFL.
"It can zoom into networks to find hidden structures, the trees in the forest, and see the empty spaces, the clearings, all at the same time."
Those clearings or cavities seem to be critically important for brain function. When researchers gave their virtual brain tissue a stimulus, they saw that neurons were reacting to it in a highly organised manner.
"It is as if the brain reacts to a stimulus by building [and] then razing a tower of multi-dimensional blocks, starting with rods (1D), then planks (2D), then cubes (3D), and then more complex geometries with 4D, 5D, etc," says one of the team, mathematician Ran Levi from Aberdeen University in Scotland.
"The progression of activity through the brain resembles a multi-dimensional sandcastle that materialises out of the sand and then disintegrates."
These findings provide a tantalising new picture of how the brain processes information, but the researchers point out that it's not yet clear what makes the cliques and cavities form in their highly specific ways.
And more work will be needed to determine how the complexity of these multi-dimensional geometric shapes formed by our neurons correlates with the complexity of various cognitive tasks.
But this is definitely not the last we'll be hearing of insights that algebraic topology can give us on this most mysterious of human organs - the brain.
Scientists have engineered the first ever 'semi-synthetic' organisms, by breeding E. coli bacteria with an expanded, six-letter genetic code. While every living thing on Earth is formed according to a DNA code made up of four bases (represented by the letters G, T, C and A), these modified E. coli carry an entirely new type of DNA, with two additional DNA bases, X and Y, nestled in their genetic code. The team, led by Floyd Romesberg from the Scripps Research Institute in California, engineered synthetic nucleotides - molecules that serve as the building blocks of DNA and RNA - to create an additional base pair, and they’ve successfully inserted this into the E. coli’s genetic code.
Credit: samsunkenthaber
Now we have the world’s first semi-synthetic organism, with a genetic code made up of two natural base pairs and an additional 'alien' base pair, and Romesberg and his team suspect that this is just the beginning for this new form of life. "With the virtually unrestricted ability to maintain increased information, the optimised semi-synthetic organism now provides a suitable platform to create organisms with wholly unnatural attributes and traits not found elsewhere in nature," the researchers report. "This semi-synthetic organism constitutes a stable form of semi-synthetic life, and lays the foundation for efforts to impart life with new forms and functions." Back in 2014, the team announced that they had successfully engineered a synthetic DNA base pair - made from molecules referred to as X and Y - and it could be inserted into a living organism.
Since then, they’ve been working on getting their modified E. coli bacteria to not only take the synthetic base pair into their DNA code, but hold onto it for their entire lifespan. Initially, the engineered bacteria were weak and sickly, and would die soon after they received their new base pair, because they couldn’t hold onto it as they divided.
Credit: Wonderwhizkids
"Your genome isn't just stable for a day," says Romesberg. "Your genome has to be stable for the scale of your lifetime. If the semisynthetic organism is going to really be an organism, it has to be able to stably maintain that information." Over the next couple of years, the team devised three methods to engineer a new version of the E. coli bacteria that would hold onto their new base pair indefinitely, allowing them to live normal, healthy lives. The first step was to build a better version of a tool called a nucleotide transporter, which transports pieces of the synthetic base pair into the bacteria’s DNA, and inserts it into the right place in the genetic code. "The transporter was used in the 2014 study, but it made the semisynthetic organism very sick," explains one of the team, Yorke Zhang. Once they’d altered the transporter to be less toxic, the bacteria no longer had an adverse reaction to it. Next, they changed the molecule they’d originally used to make the Y base, and found that it could be more easily recognised by enzymes in the bacteria that synthesise DNA molecules during DNA replication. Finally, the team used the revolutionary gene-editing tool, CRISPR-Cas9 to engineer E. coli that don’t register the X and Y molecules as a foreign invader. The researchers now report that the engineered E. coli are healthy, more autonomous, and able to store the increased information of the new synthetic base pair indefinitely. "We've made this semisynthetic organism more life-like," said Romesberg. If all of this is sounding slightly terrifying to you, there's been plenty of concern around the potential impact that this kind of technology could have.
Back in 2014, Jim Thomas of the ETC Group, a Canadian organisation that aims to address the socioeconomic and ecological issues surrounding new technologies, told the New York Times: "The arrival of this unprecedented 'alien' life form could in time have far-reaching ethical, legal, and regulatory implications. While synthetic biologists invent new ways to monkey with the fundamentals of life, governments haven’t even been able to cobble together the basics of oversight, assessment or regulation for this surging field." And that was when the bacteria were barely even functioning. But Romesberg says there's no need for concern just yet, because for one, the synthetic base pair is useless. It can't be read and processed into something of value by the bacteria - it's just a proof-of-concept that we can get a life form to take on 'alien' bases and keep them. The next step would be to insert a base pair that is actually readable, and then the bacteria could really do something with it. The other reason we don't need to be freaking out, says Romesberg, is that these molecules have not been designed to work at all in complex organisms, and seeing as they're like nothing found in nature, there's little chance that this could get wildly out of hand. "[E]volution works by starting with something close, and then changing what it can do in small steps," Romesberg told Ian Sample at The Guardian. "Our X and Y are unlike natural DNA, so nature has nothing close to start with. We have shown many times that when you do not provide X and Y, the cells die, every time."
Time will tell if he's right, but there's no question that the team is going to continue improving on the technique in the hopes of engineering bacteria that can produce new kinds of proteins that can be used in the medicines and materials of the future. The research has been published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
