Showing posts with label Chalcis. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Chalcis. Show all posts

Tuesday, July 26, 2016

The Academy of Plato and Aristotle Greek philosopher


Aristotle’s intellectual range was vast, covering most of the sciences and many of the arts, including biology, botany, chemistry, ethics, history, logic, metaphysics, rhetoric, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, physics, poetics, political theory, psychology, and zoology. He was the founder of formal logic, devising for it a finished system that for centuries was regarded as the sum of the discipline; and he pioneered the study of zoology, both observational and theoretical, in which some of his work remained unsurpassed until the 19th century. 

But he is, of course, most outstanding as a philosopher. His writings in ethics and political theory as well as in metaphysics and the philosophy of science continue to be studied, and his work remains a powerful current in contemporary philosophical debate.

Who was Aristotle? - Universe Today Universe Today

This article deals with Aristotle’s life and thought. For the later development of Aristotelian philosophy, see Aristotelianism. For treatment of Aristotelianism in the full context of Western philosophy, see philosophy, Western.


Life
The Academy

Aristotle was born on the Chalcidic peninsula of Macedonia, in northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, was the physician of Amyntas III (reigned c. 393–c. 370 bce), king of Macedonia and grandfather of Alexander the Great (reigned 336–323 bce). After his father’s death in 367, Aristotle migrated to Athens, where he joined the Academy of Plato (c. 428–c. 348 bce). He remained there for 20 years as Plato’s pupil and colleague.

Metaphysics (Aristotle) - Wikipedia

Many of Plato’s later dialogues date from these decades, and they may reflect Aristotle’s contributions to philosophical debate at the Academy. Some of Aristotle’s writings also belong to this period, though mostly they survive only in fragments. Like his master, Aristotle wrote initially in dialogue form, and his early ideas show a strong Platonic influence. His dialogue Eudemus, for example, reflects the Platonic view of the soul as imprisoned in the body and as capable of a happier life only when the body has been left behind. According to Aristotle, the dead are more blessed and happier than the living, and to die is to return to one’s real home.

Another youthful work, the Protrepticus (“Exhortation”), has been reconstructed by modern scholars from quotations in various works from late antiquity. Everyone must do philosophy, Aristotle claims, because even arguing against the practice of philosophy is itself a form of philosophizing. The best form of philosophy is the contemplation of the universe of nature; it is for this purpose that God made human beings and gave them a godlike intellect. All else—strength, beauty, power, and honour—is worthless.

Protrepticus (Clement) - Wikipedia

It is possible that two of Aristotle’s surviving works on logic and disputation, the Topics and the Sophistical Refutations, belong to this early period. The former demonstrates how to construct arguments for a position one has already decided to adopt; the latter shows how to detect weaknesses in the arguments of others. Although neither work amounts to a systematic treatise on formal logic, Aristotle can justly say, at the end of the Sophistical Refutations, that he has invented the discipline of logic—nothing at all existed when he started.

During Aristotle’s residence at the Academy, King Philip II of Macedonia (reigned 359–336 bce) waged war on a number of Greek city-states. The Athenians defended their independence only half-heartedly, and, after a series of humiliating concessions, they allowed Philip to become, by 338, master of the Greek world. It cannot have been an easy time to be a Macedonian resident in Athens.

Philip II of Macedonia: Greater Than Alexander: Amazon.co.uk

Within the Academy, however, relations seem to have remained cordial. Aristotle always acknowledged a great debt to Plato; he took a large part of his philosophical agenda from Plato, and his teaching is more often a modification than a repudiation of Plato’s doctrines. Already, however, Aristotle was beginning to distance himself from Plato’s theory of Forms, or Ideas (eidos; see form). (The word Form, when used to refer to Forms as Plato conceived them, is often capitalized in the scholarly literature; when used to refer to forms as Aristotle conceived them, it is conventionally lowercased.) Plato had held that, in addition to particular things, there exists a suprasensible realm of Forms, which are immutable and everlasting. 

This realm, he maintained, makes particular things intelligible by accounting for their common natures: a thing is a horse, for example, by virtue of the fact that it shares in, or imitates, the Form of “Horse.” In a lost work, On Ideas, Aristotle maintains that the arguments of Plato’s central dialogues establish only that there are, in addition to particulars, certain common objects of the sciences. In his surviving works as well, Aristotle often takes issue with the theory of Forms, sometimes politely and sometimes contemptuously. 

Plato, Aristotle and Machine Learning - Towards Data Science

In his Metaphysics he argues that the theory fails to solve the problems it was meant to address. It does not confer intelligibility on particulars, because immutable and everlasting Forms cannot explain how particulars come into existence and undergo change. All the theory does, according to Aristotle, is introduce new entities equal in number to the entities to be explained—as if one could solve a problem by doubling it. (See below Form.)



Travels

When Plato died about 348, his nephew Speusippus became head of the Academy, and Aristotle left Athens. He migrated to Assus, a city on the northwestern coast of Anatolia (in present-day Turkey), where Hermias, a graduate of the Academy, was ruler. Aristotle became a close friend of Hermias and eventually married his ward Pythias. Aristotle helped Hermias to negotiate an alliance with Macedonia, which angered the Persian king, who had Hermias treacherously arrested and put to death about 341. Aristotle saluted Hermias’s memory in “Ode to Virtue,” his only surviving poem.

While in Assus and during the subsequent few years when he lived in the city of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos, Aristotle carried out extensive scientific research, particularly in zoology and marine biology. This work was summarized in a book later known, misleadingly, as The History of Animals, to which Aristotle added two short treatises, On the Parts of Animals and On the Generation of Animals. Although Aristotle did not claim to have founded the science of zoology, his detailed observations of a wide variety of organisms were quite without precedent. He—or one of his research assistants—must have been gifted with remarkably acute eyesight, since some of the features of insects that he accurately reports were not again observed until the invention of the microscope in the 17th century.


The scope of Aristotle’s scientific research is astonishing. Much of it is concerned with the classification of animals into genus and species; more than 500 species figure in his treatises, many of them described in detail. The myriad items of information about the anatomy, diet, habitat, modes of copulation, and reproductive systems of mammals, reptiles, fish, and insects are a melange of minute investigation and vestiges of superstition. In some cases his unlikely stories about rare species of fish were proved accurate many centuries later. In other places he states clearly and fairly a biological problem that took millennia to solve, such as the nature of embryonic development.

Despite an admixture of the fabulous, Aristotle’s biological works must be regarded as a stupendous achievement. His inquiries were conducted in a genuinely scientific spirit, and he was always ready to confess ignorance where evidence was insufficient. Whenever there is a conflict between theory and observation, one must trust observation, he insisted, and theories are to be trusted only if their results conform with the observed phenomena.

Biography of Aristotle, Influential Greek Philosopher ThoughtCo

In 343 or 342 Aristotle was summoned by Philip II to the Macedonian capital at Pella to act as tutor to Philip’s 13-year-old son, the future Alexander the Great. Little is known of the content of Aristotle’s instruction; although the Rhetoric to Alexander was included in the Aristotelian corpus for centuries, it is now commonly regarded as a forgery. 

By 326 Alexander had made himself master of an empire that stretched from the Danube to the Indus and included Libya and Egypt. Ancient sources report that during his campaigns Alexander arranged for biological specimens to be sent to his tutor from all parts of Greece and Asia Minor.


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Source: britannica

Friday, June 24, 2016

Archaeologists just found Aristotle's tomb.The could solve one of the longest-standing mysteries ever.



Aristotle - the father of modern logic and Plato’s most famed pupil - died way back in 322 BC. Since then, his works have been canonised and taught in classrooms across the world (remember having to read Poetics and Politics? Good times). There’s just one weird problem: we actually have no idea where he was buried.

Needless to say, archaeologists have been searching for Aristotle’s tomb for what seems like forever. After all, he’s been dead for 2,228 years, and there's been no trace - until now. One Greek archaeologist says he might have finally found the long-lost tomb in the ancient village of Stagira.

According to Niki Kitsantonis for The New York Times, archaeologist Konstantinos Sismanidis has been leading a two-decades-long dig in Northern Greece, and says that Aristotle’s remains might lie in a structure buried beneath Stagira - the same village where the famed thinker was born.



The announcement came during the Aristotle 2400 Years World Congress held by scholars to celebrate Aristotle’s 2,400th birthday in Thessaloniki, Greece. During his talk, Sismanidis said he had "no proof, but strong indications, as certain as one can be", that he had found the philosopher’s resting place, reports Kitsantonis.


This means that Sismanidis doesn’t have any hard evidence to go by yet, but he says the tomb’s location in Stagira, its marble floor, panoramic view and date of construction - at the beginning of the Hellenistic Period that started in 323 BC, a year before Aristotle’s death - provides enough circumstantial evidence to draw an early conclusion.

"We had found the tomb," he said in The New York Times report. "We’ve now also found the altar referred to in ancient texts, as well as the road leading to the tomb, which was very close to the city’s ancient marketplace within the city settlement."

While we will need to wait for a full-blown analysis to know for sure, this is one of the best prospective sites researchers have had for years. According to Alexandra Ma for The Huffington Post, researchers once thought Aristotle was buried in Chalcis, a city that is roughly 300 miles (482 km) away from Stagira.

This hypothesis was based largely on the fact that the philosopher fled from Athens to Chalcis in 322 BC to escape charges of impiety. While on the run, he contracted a stomach disease and died. It's still accepted that he did die in Chalcis, but his remains could have been moved afterwards.This hypothesis was based largely on the fact that the philosopher fled from Athens to Chalcis in 322 BC to escape charges of impiety. While on the run, he contracted a stomach disease and died. It's still accepted that he did die in Chalcis, but his remains could have been moved afterwards.


Check out this video to see Sismanidis talk about his discovery

According to the new report, it's likely his family returned him to the place of his birth.

It’s definitely an exciting time for archaeologists and Aristotelian scholars. Further investigation of the tomb will hopefully unveil more details about whether or not Aristotle’s remains - likely in the form of ashes - are housed there.

source: sciencealert
The Philosophy of Aristotle (Signet Classics): Aristotle, A. E. Wardman, J. L. Creed, Renford Bambrough, Susanne Bobzien, Renford Bambrough: photo: Amazon.com